Which of the following defines non-experimental research?

Non-experimental research is characterized by the absence of manipulation of variables. This means that the researcher does not alter any conditions or variables but instead observes and measures relationships as they naturally occur. Such studies often aim to understand correlations or descriptions rather than establish cause-and-effect relationships.

By not manipulating any variables, non-experimental research allows for a more organic examination of behaviors, thoughts, or settings as they exist in the real world. This can include observational studies, survey research, and case studies. The focus is primarily on gathering data without intervention, which is essential for understanding trends or patterns in a more natural context.

Options that involve either specific methodologies, such as surveys or quantitative methods, do not accurately capture the broad definition of non-experimental research and its emphasis on non-manipulation. Random sampling is also not a defining characteristic of non-experimental research, as it pertains to how participants are selected rather than the nature of the research itself.